The Minimum Drinking Age Act - 1692 Words

Kaitlyn Allman Dr. Xiong ENG 111-JD 22 March 2016 Twenty-One vs. Eighteen July 17, 1984. This day will forever be remembered as the day in history that president Ronald Reagan signed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. This act stated that all states must raise their minimum drinking age to 21. Individuals under the age of 21 would now be prohibited from purchasing or being in public possession of any alcoholic beverage. Though not every state was keen on this idea, they all jumped to raise the minimum drinking age due to the government threat that they would lose up to 10% of their federal highway funding if they ignored the request. However, since the National Minimum Drinking Age Act was signed, much controversy has since arisen.†¦show more content†¦This slowly led to the passing of the National Minimum Drinking Age Act two years later, even though the goal of the recommendations was not necessarily to do so. This one recommendation seemed to be such a new idea that gained so much momentum and interest that the law w as eventually created. When the law was first formed, stipulations were also included. Underage drinking is allowed in 29 states if done on private premises with parental consent, 25 states if for religious purposes, and 11 states if for educational purposes (â€Å"Drinking Age ProCon†). This goes to show that a decent number of states still allow underage drinking under certain conditions. This is not to mention the mere fact that when you turn 18 in the United States of America you become a legal adult. Being a legal adult in the United States means that at age 18 you could do various activities such as, get married, join the military, and sign contracts for yourself, yet drinking alcohol is technically still illegal for three more years. Something about this just does not sit right with me. How could this group of individuals be given so many legal rights, yet still be denied the right to drink a glass of alcohol legally? In addition, though the law may say the minimum dri nking age is 21, we all know that individuals under the age of 21 still participate in the action of drinking, whether it be illegal or not. Yes, often times this can lead to binge drinking and troublesome situations for these

Psychodynamic Perspective, Behavioral and Social Cognitive...

Compare and contrast the various personality theories: Psychodynamic perspective, Behavioral and Social Cognitive perspective, Humanistic perspective, and Trait perspective) and discuss which perspective you think is most applicable. Support your argument (based on what you learned, examples, etc). Psychodynamic Perspectives- view personality as being primarily unconscious and as developing in stages. Psychodynamic theorists believe that behavior is merely a surface characteristic and that to truly understand someone’s personality we have to explore the symbolic meanings of behavior and the deep inner workings of the mind. These ideas were sketched by the architect of psychoanalytic theory-Sigmund Freud. Most psychodynamic†¦show more content†¦Because behaviorist believe that personality is learned and often changes depending on experiences and situations, it follows that, by rearranging experiences and situations, the individual’s personality can be changed. Social Cognitive perspective- states that behavior, environment and cognitive factors, such as thoughts, memories, and expectations, are important in understanding personality. Like the behavioral approach of Skinner, the social cognitive view relies on empirical research in studying personality. But this research has focused not just on observable behavior but also on the cognitive factors that influence what we are like as people. Alber Bandura and Walter Mischel are the main architects of social cognitive theory. Humanistic perspective- Stresses that a person’s capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose one’s own destiny, and positive human qualities. Humanistic psychologists believe that each of us has the ability to cope with stress, to control our lives, and to achieve what we desire. Each of us has the ability to break through and understand ourselves and our world; we can burst the cocoon and become a butterfly, say the humanists. Trait perspective- States that personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions that tend to lead to characteristicShow MoreRelatedPerspectives of Psychology1141 Words   |  5 PagesPerspectives of Psychology Psychology can be defined as the systematic study of mental processes, couple with behaviors, and experiences (Kalat, 2011). There are many ways in examining, mental processes and behaviors among people, and therefore psychologist uses different perspectives to understand how human beings, think, act, and behave. Some psychologist uses one perspective to analyze behaviors, and other uses a multidimensional approach. Carter Seifert (2013) identified 7 major perspectivesRead MoreThe Anger Management Program For A Group Therapy Workshop Setting Essay1591 Words   |  7 Pagesor attendance was court mandated. It is an open-ended therapy group workshop with no mandatory end date; the end of treatment is based on meeting treatment goals. The anger management workshop utilizes a cognitive and dialectical behavioral approach to consciously reconstruct cognitive distortions and ineffective evaluations. Primary targets are working with unresolved primary emotions that evolve into anger and loss of control that sometimes accompanies it. The group meets once a week forRead MorePsychology : Theory Of Psychology1637 Words   |  7 Pages Explain how a person committed to each of the following contemporary perspectives would explain human aggression. a. Psychodynamic: A person committed to psychodynamics would see that human functions are based on the interaction of drives and forces within the unconscious mind of a person. This influences different structures of the personality of the person as well. In addition, a person that is committed to psychodynamics would believe that the fundamental behaviors and feelings are powerfullyRead MorePsychological Perspectives On Delinquency, Psychodynamic, And Cognitive Theories903 Words   |  4 Pagesthe 18th century, theorists have worked diligently to prove just how accurate their research has been. In support of this study there are three major psychological perspectives on delinquency, psychodynamic, the behavioral, and cognitive theories. For Instance, psychodynamic theory based on the research of Sigmund Freud. Psychodynamic theory says that youth crime is a result of unresolved mental pain and internal struggle. People violate the law due to abnormal personality structures made earlierRead MoreAccording To The National Institute Of Mental Health, Social1315 Words   |  6 PagesMental Health, social anxiety is a mental disorder with a lifetime prevalence of 12%. It is characterized by a persistent, intense and chronic fear of being scrutinized by others when engaging in, as well as a fear of, social interactions. In this form of anxiety, individuals are afraid of saying or doing something that will embarrass or humiliate them and have unrealistic appraisals of the negative consequences of social encounters. There are many factors that contribute to social anxiety such asRead MoreFour Major Approaches to Clinical Psychology1803 Words   |  7 PagesThere are many approaches to clinical psychology; the four major ap proaches are in psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic, and family systems. Using the four major approaches contributes to the effectiveness in treatment by identifying the goals of each approach. The paper will break down the approaches, goals, techniques, and the overall approaches used. Philosophical Origins of Clinical Psychology ApproachesAs Thomas Plante (2005) cleverly suggested, clinical psychology is both a scienceRead MoreFoundations of Psychology Essay763 Words   |  4 PagesWithin the social sciences, Kuhn stated, there is an absence of accepted paradigms. Instead, perhaps because these fields of study are younger than the hard sciences such as biology or physics, there are several fragmented perspectives that nonetheless share these characteristics of a paradigm. There are four of these perspectives that inform contemporary psychological thought: the psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, and evolutionary perspectives (Kowalski Westen, 2009). The psychodynamic perspectiveRead MoreThe Diverse Nature of Psychology Essay examples1075 Words   |  5 Pagesseven major perspectives: psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, sociocultural, biological, and evolutionary. This diversity within psychology, allows psychologists the ability to expand in all areas of explanation, assessment, and diagnoses, which furthers the science of psychology through many different subfield specialties. Influence on Psychology’s Major Concepts Diversity is off great influence on the major concepts in psychology. The cognitive-behavioral, psychodynamic, and humanisticRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology1300 Words   |  6 PagesPsychology There are six modern psychological perspectives. These perspectives are behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive, social, cultural, and biological. Each perspective has its own unique way of explaining human behavior. I think that really explains the complex mental processes and behavior, and each prospective study should not be limited to just one. The following is my explanation of the terms and comparisons between the psychodynamic and behavioral aspects relating to the October 2000Read MoreWhy Are Lgbt Students Committing Suicide More Than Non Transgender Students?1559 Words   |  7 Pagesit views the behavioral and mental process of LGBT suicide by using the behavioral perspective or theory to determine the external stimuli trigger anger responses or aggressive act that makes an LGBT to commit suicide. It also uses the cognitive perspective to study how the interpretation of a situation may affect the anger of an LGBT and how the anger may affect their thinking to attempting or committing suicide.Furthermore,the research also explores the social-cultural perspective to determine

Business Case for Corporate Social Responsibility

Question: Discuss about theBusiness Case for Corporate Social Responsibility. Answer: Introduction: The maintainability issues with respect to the production, distribution, and utilization of merchandise and administrations progressively challenge the authenticity of business organization. The analysis recognizes three techniques that business organization usually utilize to react to authenticity issues: adjust to outside expectation of the corporate society or managing and controlling overall corporate social responsibility, control the view of their stakeholders, or take part in a talk with the individuals who address their authenticity (Aras and Crowther, 2010). It has been examining three ways to deal with decide the proper reaction system: one-most ideal way approach, possibility methodology, and paradox approach. It contend that despite heterogeneous situations with clashing requirements, business organization that take after a paradox methodology are likely to be more effective in protecting their authenticity than those that embrace one of the other two approaches. It build s up a hypothetical system for the utilization of various reaction systems and investigate the administration of conundrums by method for auxiliary, relevant, or intelligent means (Boubaker and Nguyen, 2012). Main Context Arguments for CSR Corporate social responsibility plays a significant role in sustainable development of an organization. Management has the responsibility to maximize the profits of its shareholders and owners. However, it has been argued that social problems are not the concern of the business people and it is important that these issues should resolved by unfettered working of free market system. If the free market will not solve the social issues then the legislation and government has to do the job. The companies are not equipped to handle the social activities which mean that the senior executives are oriented towards operations and finance and do not have the necessary social skills in order to make social decisions. The businesses have enough power to survive in the market environment then why they will use social power (Bubna-Litic, 2009). However, it has been argued that to survive in the society it is important to follow social rules and regulations. CSR ensures healthy climate for the busi ness companies and also ensures long term viability. Companies have enough resources and they should utilize these resources. Companies have the reservoir of functional expertise, capital and talent management. It has been argued that companies should be responsible to their communities, employees and other stakeholders. Corporate Social reasonability plays an important in the development of an organization. The sustainability issue with regard to the distribution, consumption and production of products and services challenges the legitimacy of the organizations (Corporate Social Responsibility, 2016). According to the research, it has been determined that corporations employ commonly to respond to the legitimacy issues: adapt to the external expectations, engage in the disclosure as per their rules and regulations and manipulating the perception of the stakeholders. Sustainable development is important for an organization that helps to meet the needs and demands of the organization s as well as the customers (Griseri and Seppala, 2010). The increase in globalization has to the development of problems such as chemical pollution, water scarcity, ocean acidification, biodiversity loss and global warming. The process of globalization has changed the environment of the global business as well as the organizations way to maintain the legitimacy (Hilb, 2005). Under the globalization conditions, strict labor division between nation state governance and private business does not hold their control. Many business organizations have started to assume political and social responsibilities that go beyond the legal requirements. The development of corporate social responsibility has encouraged the organizations to operate their business ethically. Organizations focus on corporate social responsibility as because they think that CSR will help them to increase their profitability and developing in the current market situation (Hunnicutt, 2009). CSR shows the right path to the organizations as well as the stakeholders and making them aware about their future scope and development. Many investors and stakeholders consider socially responsible organizations to make more secure investments. Investing into CSR has become one of the most important concerns for the organizations as it help the companies to sustain its market leader. CSR also helps to save time and money by increasing the efficiency of the companies. It also helps to improve the competitiveness of the organizations (Kim and Nofsinger, 2007). CSR integrates the environment, social and economic aspects of the business management and requires integration of all the dimensions of the business in order to have a secure sustainable development of the organization. However, for all organizations it is important to invest into business operations and corporate social responsibility to grow in the market environment. CSR imposes positive impact and build reputation for the companies. Business Case Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) plays significant role in the business operation of the contemporary business organizations as it help the company to obey the necessary rules and regulations to the business organization thus help in avoiding the potential legal hazardous, which can hamper the business activities of the organization and slow down the essential growth of the business organization. Therefore, the effective CSR strategies help in running the business smoothly and in this way help in sustainable growth and development of the company. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) ought to be initially detected as a formation of quality recommendation to the organizations own specific board, as it presumes a critical portion suited as a swindle and create valuable suggestion(Scott, 2007). By distinguishing where the business organizations can be capable within society when keep on pursuit long pull aggressiveness of the business of the company, organizations can usage the more widespread group with its own set of capacity. This structure should strengthen its main business process; furthermore, it endeavors to alter esteem chain practice. This is essential as nearby customers are a main source of offers as well as increasing an organization's bad name, the business organization itself will assume that its lesser demanding to enroll employee, besides this, lead a better vicinity power link. The most appropriate approach for the survey on whether CSR is functioning and detected with the business organization is to establish CSR measurement ability along with the implementation metric (vary for each organization) (Tilt, 2016). A case of CSR metric are Key Performance indicators (KPIs) using uniformity score card to measure elements, the example of ecological implementation as well as standardizing or benchmarking next to different business organizations in the similar business range. Organizations, instead of the information that are takings for business interests, are competent and persuasive foundations. Nonetheless, one should not overlook that the procedures done by them have an exceptionally open consequence as well as influence plentiful lives throughout their activities along with practices. Therefore, it is crucial that they show as well as act capably besides this, CSR approaches should be the guide for the organization to perform business operation ethically (Trong Tuan, 2012). All these are vital for the organization; this responsibility can create an advantageous as well as beneficial commitment to the society as flippant commerce can be unsafe in equal measure. The business organizations regardless for their responsibilities and duties as well as run in a deceptive ways that is blocking to the world's natural resources, will acquire dreadful disrepute which couldn't just put adversity for the benefit it even crushes the organization in their domestic ground. In addition to that, the effect could be more remarkable for global organizations as their captivity could cultivate to several nations over the world (Zu, 2009). Virgin Atlantic, Qantas airways, Woolworth Limited and other key organization follow CSR guides and principle which help to carry out the function of the company core activities in a most ethical ways possible and thus help to gain a positive image across the globe. Conclusion Corporate social responsibility plays a vital role in overall growth of the company from profit perspective as it enhances the company overall positive awareness and thus the overall impact is grown. Corporate social responsibility is considered to be one the major role shifter and bring a huge amount of the uplift of the company morale. The company runs through core activity and non-core activity both collectively plays a vital role in managing the overall functioning of the company. Corporate social responsibility is considered to be major role shifter as it increase the positive image of the company as CSR bring certain specific code of ethic to run the business which take care of the societal force and thus help to gain the respect of the consumer and the corporate stakeholder which eventually have the impact on the overall growth and profit margin for the company (Tilt, 2016). The overall role CSR plays in managing and controlling the core function of the company is crucial as t he company need to keep the CSR function in their checklist. From the recent changes in the corporation law, it is very much essential and mandatory for the company to check and maintain the CSR function in the company. Company not following the ethics and rules of the CSR will lead to fatal legal issues. References Aras, G. and Crowther, D. (2010).A handbook of corporate governance and social responsibility. Farnham, Surrey, England: Gower. Boubaker, S. and Nguyen, D. (2012).Board directors and corporate social responsibility. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Bubna-Litic, D. (2009).Spirituality and corporate social responsibility. Farnham, England: Gower. Corporate Social Responsibility. (2016).IJSR, 5(1), pp.1829-1831. Griseri, P. and Seppala, N. (2010).Business ethics and corporate social responsibility. S.l.: South-Western Cengage Learning. Hilb, M. (2005).New corporate governance. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Hunnicutt, S. (2009).Corporate social responsibility. Detroit, MI: Greenhaven Press. Kim, K. and Nofsinger, J. (2007).Corporate governance. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Scott, S. (2007). Corporate Social Responsibility and the Fetter of Profitability.Social Responsibility Journal, 3(4), pp.31-39. Tilt, C. (2016). Corporate social responsibility research: the importance of context.Int J Corporate Soc Responsibility, 1(1). Trong Tuan, L. (2012). Corporate social responsibility, ethics, and corporate governance.Social Responsibility Journal, 8(4), pp.547-560. Zu, L. (2009).Corporate social responsibility, corporate restructuring and firm's performance. Berlin: Springer.

Teaching Reflection free essay sample

The most distinctive of these very good teachers is that their practice is the result of careful reflection . . . They themselves learn lessons each time they teach, evaluating what they do and using these self-critical evaluations to adjust what they do next time. (Why Colleges Succeed, Ofsted 2004, para. 19) What this chapter is about . . . . . . . Reflective practice  ± what is it? Why and how should we do it? Reflection `in and `on action Some models of reflective practice Using reflection as a basis for improving learning and teaching Writing your personal development journal (PDJ) In addition, their professional knowledge and understanding includes: `Ways to reflect, evaluate and use 8 TEACHING IN THE LIFELONG LEARNING SECTOR research to develop own practice and to share good practice with others. As part of their professional practice, they should: `Share good practice with others and engage in continuing professional development through reflection, evaluation and the appropriate use of research. Qualified Teacher Learning and Skills status requires trainees to begin the practice of continuing professional development (CPD) right from the start of their training by keeping a development journal. This practice continues after completion of training; all teachers in lifelong learning are required to provide evidence of a minimum of 30 hours CPD each year in order to maintain their licence to practice. There is one quality above all that makes a good teacher  ± the ability to reflect on what, why and how we do things and to adapt and develop our practice within lifelong learning. Reflection is the key to successful learning for teachers, and for learners. As the LLUK standards make clear reflection is an underpinning value and is the key to becoming a professional teacher. A commonsense view of reflection is that it involves just thinking about things. Perhaps, thinking about the structure of the universe or why you disagreed with your partner last night could be regarded as reflection  ± others might consider it nothing more than idle and self-indulgent speculation. Most of us spend time thinking about what we do and the effects we have on others, but we dont always take it a step further and reflect on our actions and make plans to do things differently. In a professional setting, reflection is: . . . . . . deliberate; purposeful; structured; about linking theory and practice;  to do with learning; about change and development  ± becoming a reflective teacher. Jenny Moon suggests. Reflection is a form of mental processing that we use to fulfil a purpose or to achieve some anticipated outcome. It is applied to gain a better understanding of relatively complicated or unstructured ideas and is largely based on the reprocessing of knowledge, understanding and, possibly, emotions that we already possess. (Moon 2005: 1) THE REFLECTIVE TEACHER 9 From `help! to `second nature The process of reflection helps us to monitor our own development from raw beginner to experienced professional. Reynoldss (1965) model of developing competence in social work suggests the stages seen in Figure 1. 1. Those of you who recall learning to drive will recognise these stages. Mastering, for example, clutch control is a deliberate practice of trying, sometimes failing, trying again, becoming confident, until it eventually becomes an unconscious process. Our teaching careers follow a similar process: early fears about the timing of activities or the use of information technology (IT) are initially difficult, even frightening, but eventually become second nature. Another, uncredited model, suggests a movement through the stages of: . . . . unconscious incompetence  ± in which we are unaware of what we cant do or dont know; conscious incompetence  ± in which we become aware of our development needs and start to do something about them; conscious competence  ± where we are using our new skills and knowledge, but watching and monitoring ourselves; unconscious competence  ± the skills become naturalised. This is like Reynoldss notion of `second nature. Many of our skills, our knowledge and competences will become, like driving a car, second nature. However, we must ensure that `second nature doesnt become complacency. Success in teaching requires us always to challenge and develop our practice by regular reflection and review. David Berliner (2001) outlines the stages of teacher development as going from the Novice  ± raw recruit who is learning the basics and is relatively inflexible  ± to the Expert, who is very much like the racing driver or the Figure 1. 1 From Reynoldss (1965) model of developing competence. 10 TEACHING IN THE LIFELONG LEARNING SECTOR professional footballer who is completely at one with their art, performing effortlessly and naturally. Experience and length of service do not, however, necessarily make an expert; experience needs reflection if we are to become expert teachers. Rollett (2001) describes what it means to be an expert teacher. This is a very useful model and is worth quoting at length: Experts rely on a large repertoire of strategies and skills that they can call on automatically, leaving them free to deal with unique or unexpected events . . . The wealth of knowledge and routines that they employ, in fact, is so automatic that they often do not realise why they preferred a certain plan of action over another. However, when questioned, they are able to reconstruct the reasons for their decisions and behaviour. (Rollett 2001: 27) Reflection  ± some theory John Dewey was a leading educational philosopher of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries whose ideas are still influential. He believed that traditional education, as then practised in his native America, was rigid, static and inadequate for the rapidly developing society and economy of the time. (The same criticism is frequently made of education today! Dewey advocated child-centred learning and stressed the importance of each individuals lived experience as a starting point for learning. Key to Deweys philosophy was the development of thinking, particularly, reflective thinking. In How We Think, he states that: Thought affords the sole method of escape from purely impulsive or purely routine action. A being without capacity for thought is moved only by instincts and appetites, as these are called forth by outward conditions and the inner state of the organism. A being thus moved is, as it were, pushed from behind. (Dewey 1933: 15) Such a person is, in other words, not in control. They are dragged along by events, unable to understand or change them. To use more up to date terminology, such a person is merely reactive, rather than active or proactive  ± things happen to them; they dont make things happen. We must, as Dewey says, move from routine action to reflective action which is characterised by ongoing self-appraisal and development. Dewey believed that reflection begins in a state of doubt or perplexity which, for teachers, is most likely to be encountered when working with THE REFLECTIVE TEACHER. Learners, particularly new or unfamiliar learners. When we are faced with difficulties and uncertainties in practice, when things dont go according to plan or dont fit with the theory, we may feel powerless and unable to resolve the situation. For, Dewey, however, these are key moments for learning; we can reflect on these problems to solve the perplexity and learn from it. E Donald Schon (1983) developed the notions of reflection in action and reflection on action. For the purposes of this book I will explain these two concepts very simply as `reflecting while youre doing it and `reflecting after youve done it. When delivering the learning you have so carefully planned and prepared, you need to be constantly aware and monitoring the session as it develops. This awareness allows you to make changes as the situation demands, to be able to `think on your feet. When the session is complete you can reflect on, analyse and evaluate the learning and teaching. This postaction reflection then informs your subsequent planning and preparation leading to a cycle of continuing improvement. We can represent the process as in Figure 1. 2. E A further development in Schons work is the distinction between technical rationality and tacit knowledge. This distinction could be characterised more E simply as the `theory-practice gap. Like Dewey, Schon believed that reflection begins in working practice, particularly those areas of practice where professionals are confronted with unique and confusing situations  ± E `the swampy lowlands of practice as Schon calls them. Teachers may have acquired the theoretical knowledge (technical rationality) of their subject or of the practice of teaching and learning, but whilst this might explain their classroom practice as it should be, it might not explain it as it actually is. From these real-life experiences teachers can develop tacit knowledge  ± a synthesis of theory and practice which they have developed for themselves. It is vital that these learning experiences are recorded in journals and discussed with mentors and fellow trainees. Trainee teachers might express the opinion that `this theory stuff is all very well, but it doesnt work in the real world. Teacher trainers may be offended by such rejections of theory, but their trainees may have a point  ± theory is only of any use when it is applied and developed in practice. The real teaching environment is where theory is applied, tested and evaluated. Theory is never used rigidly, nor does it provide all the answers to the problems teachers encounter. It is, however, the starting point for developing teaching and learning in practice. Reflection, in and on action, allows teachers to continually improve their practice and even to the development of practice-based theory. During your training, and as a result of reading this book, you will acquire a body of theoretical knowledge related to teaching and learning which you will want to apply in your learning sessions. For, example, humanist theories of teaching and learning stress the development of the whole person and the 12 TEACHING IN THE LIFELONG LEARNING SECTOR Figure 1. 2 Using reflection in and on action to improve teaching and learning. creation of a non-threatening, positive learning environment. In practice, this might not be as easy as the theory suggests. However, this does not invalidate the theory, but it does mean you will need to adapt and E experiment with it in practice. Schon calls this application and development of theory in the real world theory-in-use. The notion of reflection linking theory and practice underlies the work of Kolb and of Gibbs. The models of learning and reflection they developed are sometimes called `iterative because they are based on a repeating, but continually evolving and improving, cycle of learning. Kolb (1984) is explained in detail in the chapter on learning theory. Essentially, his Experiential Learning Theory shows a four-stage cycle of activity. These four elements are: THE REFLECTIVE TEACHER . . . . 13 concrete experience; reflection; abstract conceptualisation; Active experimentation. The learner, in this case the teacher, can begin the cycle at any point but must follow each step in order. Consider, for example, that a trainee teacher uses role play in a session (concrete experience). The role play is partially successful. The teacher reflects on the use of this learning method and considers how it could be improved and made more effective (reflection). She reads up on the use of role play and talks to more experienced colleagues and, as a result, formulates an improved version of the activity (abstract conceptualisation). The next time she plans to use role play she incorporates her new ideas into the planning (active experimentation). This leads to a new concrete experience and the repetition of the cycle. Activity Consider a recent example from your own teaching when you have tried a new method or resource. Using Kolbs four stages, consider the development of the technique in practice. Several writers on reflective practice have emphasised the importance of the teachers feelings as part of the reflective process. This fits in with the development of emotional intelligence, which is discussed later in the book. We may experience a wide range of feelings during and after our teaching  ± elation, confusion, anger, helplessness, blaming the learners  ± and it is important to recognise and reflect on them. Gibbs (1988) adds feelings to his model of `learning by doing. See Figure 1. 3 for the stages of learning in his model. Gibbss model provides key points in development, especially description, evaluation, analysis and action, which we will consider further in the section on methods of reflection. Before then we need to examine the reasons for reflective practice. Reflective practice  ± why should we do it? An obvious answer is because weve got to! However, this is not a good reason for doing it. 14 TEACHING IN THE LIFELONG LEARNING SECTOR Figure 1. 3 Gibbss model of `learning by doing. As we have already agreed, reflective practice is a professional requirement that we have to provide evidence of, usually in a journal or log. This requirement brings teachers in the lifelong learning sector up to date with other professionals, such as nurses, social workers and human resource professionals. Just as we wouldnt want to be cared for by a nurse who wasnt familiar with the latest techniques, we probably wont want to be taught by someone who doesnt know their subject or the best ways of teaching and learning. Another reason for reflective practice is because it encourages us to understand our learners and their needs and abilities. Every learner is different and there are likely to be varying interpretations of what we say and do within any group of learners. There are `different worlds within our classrooms and skilled teachers will try to see themselves as their students see them. Stephen Brookfield believes that: `Of all the pedagogic tasks teachers face, getting inside students heads is one of the trickiest. It is also the most crucial (Brookfield 1995: 92). This book is based on the principle that active learning is preferable to passive learning and that active learning requires reflection. Reflective teachers are more likely to develop reflective learners. If we practise reflection we can more effectively encourage learners to reflect on, analyse, evaluate THE REFLECTIVE TEACHER 15 and improve their own learning. These are key skills in active learning and the development of independent learners. Reflection can also help us to develop our emotional intelligence, particularly if we include a consideration of feelings as part of our reflections. The concept of emotional intelligence, developed by Daniel Goleman (1995, 1998), encourages the development of self-awareness of feelings and the recognition and management of emotions. Finally, and most importantly, reflective practice is the key to improvement. If we dont think about, analyse and evaluate our professional practice we cannot improve. Activity Empathy (see Chapter 4, `Communication and the teacher) is important in developing your reflective practice, particularly the ability to imagine what it would be like as a learner in your own class. I can well recall a staff development session in which a colleague talked to us for more than an hour. At the end of it I was extremely annoyed at just being a passive object. It was a salutary experience and made me realise what it would be like to be a student in a passive, non-stimulating environment. When youre teaching you have considerable freedom of movement and activity  ± you can stand up; sit down; walk around and, generally, direct operations. This is not usually the case for learners. Next time youre in `learner mode, at a conference or staff development session, think about how you feel. Do you feel stimulated, interested, engaged, or restless and fidgety? Would you like to move around a bit, stand up for a while, say something, do something? Reflective practice  ± how to do it Reflection is a process and an activity which teachers undertake primarily for themselves. It is not about the production of mountains of paper evidence at the behest of teacher trainers or managers  ± such `otherdirected activity becomes a chore for trainees and teachers from which they will derive little value. Reflection will, however, lead to a product  ± diary, log, PDJ  ± which will contribute to assessment and, subsequently, be used as evidence of CPD. 16 TEACHING IN THE LIFELONG LEARNING SECTOR The right mental attitude We should remember that reflection is not an end in itself; it is the starting point of becoming a reflective practitioner. For Jenny Moon reflection is used, `with the sense of saying something not so much about what a person does as what they are (Moon 1999). The basis of all reflection is a willingness to undertake the process and to value it as means of improvement and development. Reflection can be difficult, even threatening, because it forces us to be honest with ourselves and recognise not only our successes but areas where we need to improve. It makes us take responsibility for our teaching and learning. Being a reflective practitioner is like being your own observer and your own critical friend. We can refer to this willingness to reflect and develop as the `right mental attitude, without which the whole process of reflection is pointless. The professional development journal (PDJ) There are many forms of reflection and occasions on which you will reflect, but as a trainee teacher the main form of reflection will be through your reflective journal, commonly referred to as the professional development journal. Your PDJ is a written record of your experiences of, and feelings about planning, preparing and delivering teaching and learning. It will contain general accounts of learning sessions but, more importantly, will identify critical incidents which can be the basis for learning and continuing professional development (CPD). The PDJ is subjective; it is written by you and for you and gives an opportunity to conduct a dialogue with yourself. You must remember, however, that as a trainee your tutors and mentors will see the journal, so it pays not to be indiscreet or make personal comments. The journal is also a place where you can relate theory to practice. We have already established that theory is only useful if it is used, tested and evaluated in your teaching and learning. Success, or otherwise, in teaching is not just a matter of luck. It results from thorough planning and preparation, knowing your students, and reflection on, and evaluation of, your practice. You will experience the wonderful feeling you get after a class has gone well; the learners, and you, have enjoyed themselves and, above all, learned. You will also experience the depths of despair following a session which just hasnt worked, where the learners dont seem to want to learn and you just long for the end of it all. The reflective teacher uses both extremes to learn and develop. If it went well, are there general conclusions you can draw to try with other learners? Are there specific points you can use with this group again  ± remember each group of learners is THE REFLECTIVE TEACHER 17 unique and reflection helps you to get to know them and work effectively with them. After the dreadful session, you might be chastising yourself (or worse, your learners) for the failure. Neither course is appropriate. You must reflect, analyse, evaluate, learn and change. One of the most valuable functions of your PDJ is to help you identify development points for action planning. You should review your journal regularly to see if there any recurring themes which you need to pick up on for your training and development. It will be useful to summarise your journal at the end of your course. This summary can have two functions; first, you can see how far you have come since you started your training and, second, you can use it as the basis for your CPD. Remember, evidence of CPD is a requirement in getting and maintaining QTLS. Writing your PDJ Many trainee teachers in PCET worry about writing their journals  ± what form should it take; typed or handwritten; how much; how often; is it right? The main message is  ± dont worry. When it comes to journals, you cant do them wrong! There are, however, guidelines and advice to help you make them more useful and more effective. Writing and written style Writing is a very effective way to make sense of experience  ± to organise, evaluate and learn from it. Creative writing is often used as a form of therapy by which people can work things out and find solutions for problems. Cognitive behavioural therapy requires clients to recognise and write down examples of mistaken thinking and to imagine more positive scenarios  ± in other words to reflect, analyse, evaluate and, most importantly, change. It is important to get into the habit of writing and to do it as soon as possible after the event. Its a good idea to include a reflection box at the end of your session plans in which to record some immediate thoughts which will form the basis of your journal entry. When you start writing, dont spend too much time thinking about it. Let the writing flow and try to capture the experience and some critical incidents (see below). Once youve recalled the events, then you can start to learn from them. Little and often is a good rule, particularly in the early days of journal writing. You should always be regular in your journal writing habits. You might find it useful to track a particular group of learners or, perhaps, to compare groups. Your course tutors will advise you regarding how much you should write and what period of time your journal should cover. As for writing style, you should be free, spontaneous and informal. Theres no need for the impersonal, academic style; some of the best journals Ive seen 18 TEACHING IN THE LIFELONG LEARNING SECTOR are quirky and idiosyncratic. You must, however, avoid inappropriate language or too much slang or colloquialism and never make personal comments about teachers or colleagues  ± unless, of course, you are referring to their good practice. There will be times when you are frustrated and annoyed in your training or in your work. You can use your journal to get some of this out of your system, it can even be therapeutic, but you must use it as a basis for learning and development  ± extended moaning is not acceptable. In keeping with the spontaneous and informal approach you will probably write your journal by hand, but its best to check if your tutors have any preferences regarding written or word-processed documents. Some of you will prefer to type your reflections straight on to your computer, possibly using a template you have designed to suit your needs. When you are reviewing your journal its useful to highlight key points for your summary, for action plans, or as discussion points for tutorials. I have known trainees who recorded their journals on to dictation machines (digital rather than tape). This can increase the spontaneity but, obviously, necessitates transcription into written form  ± if youve got voiceactivated software this is less of a problem. Increasingly, trainees are experimenting with using blogs for their reflective journals. This provides some interesting opportunities for sharing ideas with a whole range of people and even the development of `communities of practice. Again, you must check with your tutors regarding the acceptability of this format. Communities of practice dont have to be online. You can share your reflections with fellow trainees in taught sessions or group tutorials. It can be very helpful to find that colleagues are experiencing the same uncertainties or difficulties as you and, hopefully, enjoying successes. Sharing ideas and developing strategies together is an extremely valuable collaborative activity. You may even wish to build in presentations to colleagues on particular issues. Many teachers, like many learners, have a visual learning preference and, as such will want to include diagrams, drawings or any other visual modes. I always encourage this, particularly as visuals can help you get the big picture and explore relationships between ideas. One of my former students who taught art produced a wonderful journal full of written entries, pictures, sketches, quotes and jokes  ± quite a work of art in itself. Personalise your journal by all means, but remember you will need to share it with your tutors, and possibly submit it for assessment, so be prepared to summarise and translate as necessary. More than just description The most inadequate reflections are those which merely describe what happened in a teaching and learning session. On its own, this is of no value. THE REFLECTIVE TEACHER 19 But it is a start. To the description (what happened? What sense can you make of the situation? Bring in ideas from outside the experience to help you. What was really going on? Were different peoples experiences similar or different in important ways? Conclusions: What can be concluded, in a general sense, from (general) these experiences and the analyses you have undertaken? 20 TEACHING IN THE LIFELONG LEARNING SECTOR Conclusions: (specific) Personal action plans: What can be concluded about your own specific, unique, personal situation or way of working? What are you going to do differently in this type of situation next time? What steps are you going to take on the basis of what you have learned? Critical incidents When writing your journal you will almost inevitably identify critical incidents. These are specific occurrences within teaching and learning sessions which you consider significant or important. Critical incidents may be positive or negative. They can be moments in which you suddenly become aware of a problem, or a solution to a problem; when you realise that you have a particular development need or a particular strength. They could be described as `light bulb moments when there is a particular E incident or a sudden realisation. For example, as young and naove teacher, I made what I considered to be a humorous comment about a students name. His strong, negative reaction was a critical, and memorable, incident for me when I realised that peoples names are precious to them and should be respected. You will have many critical incidents in your training and during your working life as a teacher; they are all occasions for learning. You might, for example, be faced with behavioural difficulties with learners or a refusal by one, or all, of a group to engage. You might suddenly realise that you have talked for too long and the answer is to provide a change of activity. Critical incidents will often lead to generalisable ideas and solutions which are transferable to other groups and learning situations. Layout and form of your PDJ PDJs can take many forms  ± notebook; a ring-binder with loose-leaf pages; a file on your computer  ± whatever is easiest for you. Again, you should check with your course tutors to see if they have any preferences, although generally teacher trainers avoid giving too many guidelines for PDJs, for fear of producing uniformity and stifling the students own approach. If you use a notebook, an A4 size with perforated and hole-punched pages will be the easiest to use. You can design your own template for use with wordprocessing, perhaps using categories such as: . . . description; analysis and evaluation; conclusions for future practice. THE REFLECTIVE TEACHER 21 I favour just a straightforward written narrative without too much preconceived structure which might detract from the spontaneity. A useful device has been developed by Heath (1998) which involves a splitpage or two page approach, using the left-hand side to record the description of the events and the right-hand side is used for reflection. Left-hand page Right-hand page Time/date/contextual details Description of the session Describe critical incidents Initial feelings Reflection Analysis and evaluation Reference to theory (if appropriate) Thoughts added during review or tutorials Individual learning plans (ILPs) In your work or on your teaching placements you will very likely have negotiated and used ILPs with your learners; you will be expected to do the same as a trainee on a course leading to QTLS. Your ILP can be considered as the starting point of reflection and of your CPD. It can take the form of an audit of your existing knowledge, skills, attitudes and personal qualities; to identify your strengths, and to highlight any uncertainties you have about becoming a teacher in the lifelong learning sector. It is most likely that your course tutors will provide an ILP format which you will be expected to use as an initial audit, but also as a document to refer to during tutorials and as a measure of the distance you have travelled at the end of your course. The important point is to use the ILP to kick-start your personal and professional development, not merely something you produce because youve been asked to. If you havent been provided with an ILP pro-forma, here are a few areas you might wish to consider for your development. You can develop a rating scale for these so that you can see your starting point and the distance travelled. What do you know about or how confident are you about: . . . . . . . . . the roles and responsibilities of a teacher? learning styles? planning a course? planning a session? how people learn? Skills for Life and Key Skills? communication skills? presentation skills? demonstration skills?